Part 2: How Industrialization Shaped Mill Creek

by Rufaro Bulathsinghalage, Environmental Education AmeriCorps Member

Industrialization’s Impact on Mill Creek: 

Once the Miami, Shawnee and many other Native American tribes were removed from the region, and the waterway was renamed to be more fitting for industry, the Mill Creek changed rapidly and dramatically. The clearing of the Mill Creek Valley began in 1822 with the first two northernmost mills developed and installed in what we now know as West Chester. The novel “The Mill Creek–An Unusual History of an Urban Stream” by Stan Hadeen includes a quote from Lucy Braun–a deciduous forest ecologist. Braun writes that “nothing of the original vegetation of this part remains” and that “it is all farmland” in reference to the Upper Mill Creek Valley. The upland hillside forests were deforested into woodland pastures for livestock (cows, sheep, swine) to graze. The pigs were known to over-graze, constantly overturning the soil, destroying roots and timber in the process.

Decreases in Biodiversity:

Maple, beech, and hickory trees were harvested for firewood while polar and walnut trees were chopped for lumber. The leather industry in Cincinnati boomed, resulting in a high demand for tan bark, so, all oak trees in a 75-100 mile radius were “ruthlessly slaughtered”. By 1881 deforestation had eliminated the woodlands in Hamilton County by 15%. 

Not only did the valley’s trees suffer, but so did its wildlife. Mammals such as the black bear, gray wolves, and mountain lions disappeared soon after their forested habitat was destroyed. Fish like the River Chub and the Darter vanished, likely a result of bottom-smothering sedimentation from the destruction of the watershed’s forest cover. Other fish populations became fatigued by over sedimentation of the waterway and likely suffered asphyxiation due to clogged gills, disruption of mating traditions as it became difficult for them to navigate the river, and overall habitat degradation. Macroinvertebrate species decreased and water quality levels plummeted–following was a decrease in their predators, further reducing biodiversity. Deforestation and the cultivation of farmland increased sediment load in the river, decreased animal biodiversity and increased the intensity of various parameters such as temperature, sunlight, nutrients, floods, and droughts. Woodland removal increased summer shoreline and streamwater temperatures, driving away thermally sensitive invertebrates and fish. (Ch. 2-3 in The Mill Creek: An Unnatural History of an Urban Stream by Stan Hadeen book)

Erosion and Flooding:

Deforestation does not go without its consequences–undisturbed forests experience soil erosion rates less than 50 tons/mi2/ year while cleared forests experience soil erosion rates upwards of 10 times that amount. Deforested watersheds are also susceptible to experiencing higher floods of shorter duration. This can be witnessed in the countless and devastating floods that occurred during the 1800s. 

1805: Caldwell’s mill in present-day Carthage was swept away in a flood that followed heavy rainfall. 

1808: A flood destroyed the first bridge built over Mill Creek.

1822: A 120-foot bridge constructed in 1816 was demolished by a flooded Mill Creek. 

(Ch. 2-3 in The Mill Creek: An Unnatural History of an Urban Stream by Stan Hadeen book)

As Cincinnati grew, so did its industry. During the Industrial Revolution, beginning in 1760, Cincinnati became an industrial powerhouse. Mill Creek was a vital resource in its growth, as it provided large, consistent flows of water, driving their machinery. Lockland, a watershed city, even installed a series of four locks that provided water to early factories. 

The lush, nutrient-rich floodplains of Mill Creek also attracted agricultural businesses. In the 19th century, many of Ciniannti’s plant and produce products were grown on nearby Mill Creek Valley fields. 

‘Porkopolis’ , is a potential catalyst for the devastating dumping that occurred in Mill Creek. Porkopolis was an extremely lucrative business in Cincinnati, however, like many things, it did not come without consequences, in this case–waste. By the early 20th century, Mill Creek waters were discolored by pig blood–a brownish-red effluent that even gave Mill Creek the nickname ‘Bloody Run’. Dairy  and other industries also contributed to what seemed to be endless dumping in Mill Creek. Drainage pipes from many of the city’s dairy industries dumped into Mill Creek, while the Mandery Pure Milk Company allowed its waste suds from churning and waste waters to flow down Mill Creek from upstream operations. The Walnut Hills Laundry Company drained roughly 20,000 gallons of wash water into a Mill Creek tributary and two of Locklands paper mills released about 3 million gallons of a “dark brownish black liquid containing much finely divided suspended matter” into the river–just to name a few. (Ch. 6-7 in The Mill Creek: An Unnatural History of an Urban Stream by Stan Hadeen book)

Nonetheless, the city continued to develop and over time one of the valley’s primary hazards continued–flooding. Flooding is something that the Mill Creek Valley had endured for hundreds of years; I even mentioned it when discussing the Native American history in the watershed. Not only were countless bridges destroyed by the floods that followed seasons of heavy rainfall, but the communities that surrounded the river constantly suffered the detrimental effects of severe flooding. In order to combat this, the U.S. The Army Corps of Engineers decided to channelize the river. Channelization is the process of straightening or redirecting natural streams in an artificially constructed stream bed. In theory, channelization has small benefits–it expands the area of fertile land in riparian zones (streambanks); in turn allowing for more efficient and productive farming practices. In the case of Mill Creek, however, channelization was overall a detrimental development of the waterway. In general, some of the drawbacks of channelization are that the channels provide the waterway with less volume to hold excess water during floods, it creates a steeper streambank leading to a faster flow of water running down the banks, which in turn increases erosion and over sedimentation of the waterway. Although the Army Corps of Engineers only met 40% of their goal, these are issues that we continue to combat today.  

I know that this seems to be a devastating story of how stewards of the land were pushed out of the Mill Creek Valley, just for its colonizers to develop and destroy the area, but after Mill Creek was named one of the most endangered rivers in North America by the American Rivers in 1997, community members and nonprofits began to shift the current. 

After 30 years of dedication, passion, and hard work, Mill Creek has been revitalized as a natural and community asset. With Education programs teaching the community about Mill Creek’s history, Restoration projects finding ways to mitigate the infrastructure that is damaging to the natural ecosystem, Recreation programs to re-connect people to the waterway, and a Water Quality Monitoring program that monitors the health and condition of the waterway–Mill Creek is making its resurgence one day at a time. 

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Do not allow this story to create a negative image of the waterway and those who contributed to its detriment. Let this be a story of resilience, hope, and inspiration. Empowering you to connect with the river that may lie in your backyard and contribute to the movement that is restoring its vitality. Every step, no matter how small, plays a role in the healing process. The story of Mill Creek is a testament to what can happen when communities come together with a shared vision for restoration and conservation. It’s a reminder that even in the face of adversity, collective action can foster positive change. Now is the time to not only reflect on the past but to look forward to a future where Mill Creek, and waterways like it, thrive once again—nurtured by the very hands that once harmed them. Your involvement matters, and together, we can ensure that the river’s story continues to be one of revival and connection for generations to come.

PART 1: The Revitalization of Mill Creek and Its Native Roots

by Rufaro Bulathsinghalage, Environmental Education AmeriCorps Member

Introduction: 

The story of Mill Creek in southwest Ohio is one of both devastation and hope, shaped by indigenous stewardship, colonial expansion, industrialization, and environmental restoration. From the ancient presence of Native American tribes like the Miami and Shawnee to the unjust removal of these tribes through deceptive treaties, the land surrounding Mill Creek has witnessed significant transformation. As settlers renamed the Maketewah River to Mill Creek and began reshaping the valley for agricultural and industrial use, the waterway suffered severe degradation. But even as the river became a symbol of environmental harm, the community rallied for its revival. Today, Mill Creek is making a remarkable comeback through ongoing restoration efforts, education programs, and community-driven initiatives. Understanding this history is key to preserving Mill Creek and other local waterways.

Timeline of Native American History:

Native American history in the southwest Ohio region began with the Paleoindians (ca. 10,000–7500 BC), who settled along the Ohio and Miami Rivers, utilizing the land’s resources for food, water, and tools. The area's dense forests, described as ‘The Garden of Eden’, provided abundant wildlife and plants for sustenance. These early tribes practiced sustainable land and water management, ensuring the resilience of the ecosystem. As time progressed, the Archaic Culture (ca. 8000–1500 BC) emerged, with nomadic hunter-gatherer society developing early agricultural practices, including the ‘Three Sisters’ method of growing corn, beans, and squash together to improve soil fertility.

The Woodland Culture (ca. 1000 BC–1000 AD) marked an era of innovation, with the development of pottery and the construction of earthen mounds, like the Miamisburg Mound in Ohio, which offer insight into Native traditions. This period transitioned into the Fort Ancient Culture (Protohistoric period, post-AD 1400), where farming practices continued, particularly the cultivation of the Three Sisters. The Fort Ancient Culture influenced tribes in southwest Ohio and southeast Indiana, some of which evolved into historically documented groups as they entered the early recorded history period (SOURCE).

1750’s-60’s

The end of the French and Indian War marked the shift in rule of land in North America with the Treaty of Paris (1763). The Treaty of Paris relinquished French territories east of the Mississippi River to the English. As English settlers began to move further north, disagreements between English settlers and the Miami and Shawnee tribes arose. European settlers were attracted to the Mill Creek Valley because of the resources that it provided (such as fertile soil, navigable trails, food, shelter, and water power), however, the land was occupied by Native tribes. These tribes inhabited the Mill Creek Valley, but with the arrival of English settlers, they were forced to establish more watch points along the Ohio River, marking a boundary between tribal lands and settler encroachment. 

In 1763, the K5 Boundary established a boundary that prevented  English settlers from expanding west–England’s attempt at reserving land for Native American tribes (SOURCE). This was an attempt to reduce tensions between Native American tribes and English settlers, as England simply wanted to trade resources with Native Americans rather than further encroaching on Native American lands. English settlers did not respond well to this and felt as if England was treating them worse than it was treating Native Americans (SOURCE). As the American Revolution approached, English settlers may have used the Revolution to release their frustrations on Natives and the British Empire-further contributing to the violence erupting between settlers and Natives.

Ohio Removal:

The Ohio Removal occurred gradually through deceptive tactics, including unfair treaties negotiated by federal agents, intentional miscommunication by translators, and coercion of Natives under threat of violence. Notable treaties from this period include the Fort Stanwix Treaty (1784), Fort McIntosh Treaty (1785), and the Treaty of Greenville (1795), which allowed European settlers to claim Ohio for farmland, disregarding the Miami and Shawnee tribes who already inhabited the region. The culmination of these treaties led to the displacement of these tribes. Those who refused to relocate were simply no longer recognized as Native American people and the United States government would also refuse to record someone’s existence or intentionally misrecord their information (SOURCE). Following the Treaty of Greenville were various acts towards removing Miami and Shawnee tribes west of the Mississippi River. 

July of 1803: President Thomas Jeferson gives the first official proposal for the removal of Natives. His rationale was that Natives would be free from further white interference and would never be displaced from their home again. 

January 1825: President James Moore presented a definite removal policy to Congress.  

1829: President Andrew Jackson dedicated himself to relocating eastern Natives west of the Mississippi River. 

May 1830: The Indian Removal Bill was passed and it provided President Jackson with the authority to forcefully displace Native people. 

As a result, Miami, Shawnee and many other Native tribes in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois unwillingly relinquished most of their land, maintaining small reserves. The Wyandot Tribe relinquished 4.5 million acres of land in Indiana, and the Miami tribe relinquished 6.7 million and 297,000 acres of land in Indiana and Ohio respectively (SOURCE). When the United States finally won its independence from England, there was motivation to begin clearing the land in the Midwest. In turn, thousands of Natives were forced to relocate to the lands beyond the Mississippi River. 

Renaming of the Maketewah River:

Once the Miami, Shawnee, and other Native tribes were removed from the southwest Ohio and southeast Indiana regions, American settlers were steadfast and eager with clearing the land and developing it to be suitable for eastern settlers. In order to make the Mill Creek Valley suitable for settlers, some changes were made. The most notable being the renaming of what Natives formerly called the “Maketewa River” to what we now know as the “Mill Creek”. The word "Maketewa" likely translates to "it is black" or "it is dark," and the Mill Creek Valley was historically abundant with Black Walnut trees (Juglans nigra). The walnuts from these trees contain a polymer called lignin, which, when exposed to water, undergoes a chemical reaction that turns the water a dark brown or black. This suggests that the dark color of the water may be linked to the presence of black walnut trees. 

The renaming of the Creek began with John Cleves Symmes, a congressman from New Jersey with an interest in western colonization. Symmes took a trip to the “Ohio country” in 1787 and followed up his visit with a contract with the U.S. Treasury Board for his Miami Purchase. His purchase included a region east of the Great Miami, the region known as the Maketewa watershed. Symmes released various notices, asking for permission to purchase and develop the land, and in doing so he changed the name of the river from the “Maketewa River” to the “Mill Creek”, in doing so, he created a subtle marketing message that encouraged the development of industry along the waterway. (Ch. 1 of Stan Hadeen Book) This painting is on display at the Cincinnati Museum Center (CMC). It is displayed at the CMC Objects and Fine Art Collection and it showcases the western hills and Mill Creek alongside them. The portrait originates from the early 19th century and is the “B&O Railroad-Millcreek Exchange” looking South from Hopple Street. 

As I researched the rich history that lies within the Mill Creek Valley, I found myself going down many rabbit holes—uncovering more and more about the development of the city. In need of a break, I decided to retreat to the Norwood Mound, located in Norwood, Cincinnati. This mound, rumored to be a former watchpoint, overlooks the southeast cities of Cincinnati and offers a sweeping view of the Ohio River. Standing there, I couldn't help but reflect on the land’s deep connection to the Miami and Shawnee tribes who once called this region home along with many others. 

For now, I leave you with this moment of reflection.

Join me next week as I continue to delve deeper into the fascinating history of Mill Creek, uncovering the stories of those who shaped its past and the efforts that are helping to restore it today.

LIMITED TIME! Double Your Donation

THANK YOU to all the generous donors who contributed to this challenge and helped raise over $26,000! While the donation matching challenge is now complete, its NEVER TOO LATE to donate!

In December each year, Mill Creek Alliance appeals to individuals to make donations that support our programs in Restoration, Education, Recreation, and Water Quality.  Annual Appeal Newsletters will be sent out in the weeks to come. To meet our 2024 fundraising goals, we still need to raise $15,000.  YOU can help make sure all our programs have the financial means they need to keep going strong.

For a limited time, your gift has a chance to double its impact! The first $12,000 donations in December will be DOUBLED thanks to our generous donors, the Smale Family Foundation and 2 Anonymous Donors.

Donate BEFORE December 31st to help us reach our fundraising goal!

TRIPLE Your Donation

If you work for a company that offers a matching gifts program, you could TRIPLE the value of your donation.

A few of the Cincinnati companies that offer matching gifts programs include: GE, Duke Energy, Pilot Chemical, KAO, Cengage, Verizon, Apple, Gannett Company, Norfolk Southern, and many banks!

Thank You!

We are grateful for everyone who gives their time, energy, and resources to support our work in the Mill Creek Watershed! We could not do this without you.

Beaver Facts and Myths

Separating the Truth from Fiction
by Patrick Owuraku Kwaah, MCA Intern

Beavers in North America have long captured people's imagination with their industrious behaviors and unique adaptations. However, along with the facts, numerous myths and misconceptions about these creatures have circulated. In this blog, we embark on a journey to uncover the truth about beavers while debunking common myths that have persisted through the years.

First, the North American Beaver, Castor canadensis, is the largest living rodent in North America, with adults averaging 40 pounds in weight and measuring more than three feet in length. The North American beaver has 24 subspecies, with a variety found across the continent as a result of the reintroductions of different beavers to different places. Often regarded as North America’s most iconic builders, they play a remarkable and often underestimated role in shaping the continent’s ecosystem. From constructing intricate dams to creating thriving wetland habitats, these industrious creatures are essential for maintaining the balance of nature.

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Did You Know?

Mill Creek is home to a number of beavers.
Beavers along the creek signify a healthy waterway and thriving ecosystem.

Beavers have been spotted in Northside, Winton Hills, and the northern wetland areas in the upper watershed communities. Head to the Salway Park Mill Creek Green Way Trail and keep your eyes peeled for these furry creatures or signs of their presence.

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Myth 1: Beavers are aggressive and dangerous

The myth that beavers are aggressive and dangerous likely stems from a misunderstanding of their behavior and defensive instincts. Beavers are generally peaceful and tend to avoid confrontations with other animals, including humans. However, if a beaver feels threatened or cornered, it may exhibit defensive behavior. This behavior can include warning signals like tail slapping on the water, vocalizations and even posturing to deter potential threats.

Facts: Beavers do not pose threats to humans and are not predatory animals. Their natural behavior is focused on their survival and maintaining their dams and lodges. Rare instances where a beaver might become more assertive is when it perceives a threat like encroachment of its dams by humans or other animals.

Myth 2: Beavers are destructive pests

Coexistence Strategies: Various coexistence strategies such as flow devices, pond leveling, and tree protection can help minimize the conflicts with beavers.

While beavers can cause challenges for some human activities, they are not inherently destructive pests. Understanding their behavior and using coexistence strategies can mitigate conflicts. Beavers build dams to create wetland habitats, control water flow, and protect their lodges. These dams can sometimes lead to localized flooding, which might be viewed as destructive. Similarly, beavers cut down trees for food and to use in their dam and lodge construction. This can lead to tree damage on private properties.

Fact: Beavers play a vital role in wetland conservation: Their dam-building activities can help create wetlands, which serve as essential habitats for various wildlife and are vital for water filtration and storage. Beavers, also, build dams to control water flow and protect their lodges. Scientists and researchers recognize that beaver activities are essential in creating and maintaining wetland ecosystems, improving water quality, and supporting biodiversity.

Myth 3: Beavers fell trees for food alone

This myth oversimplifies the behavior and reasons behind tree-cutting. Beavers are well-known for their tree-cutting activities, but it is important to understand that they use trees for multiple purposes, not just as a food source.

Fact: While beavers do eat tree bark and woody parts, they also use trees for dam and lodge construction. They similarly use tree branches and logs as underwater caches. These underwater caches of food sustain them through the winter when fresh food is scarce.

Myth 4: Beavers are clumsy and slow on land

This myth arises from the misconception that these animals are primarily aquatic and not well-suited to terrestrial environments. Their webbed feet, waterproof fur, and large, paddle-like tails are well-suited for efficient movement in water. However, beavers are more adaptable and agile on land than many people realize.

Fact: Beavers can move effectively and efficiently on terra firma, demonstrating agility, strength, and adaptability. Beavers can walk, run, and even climb slopes, using their strong legs and sharp claws.

Quick Fact #1

The Giant Beaver, Castoroides, is an extinct genus of enormous, bear-sized beavers that lived in North America, Ohio too, during the Pleistocene era. An adult giant beaver could weigh about 220 pounds.

Quick Fact #2

North American Beavers are monogamous and family-oriented: They live in family units, which typically consist of a monogamous pair and their offspring. They work together to maintain their lodges and dams.

Quick Fact #3

Beavers' teeth grow continuously throughout their lives and daily usage helps to trim them down. If beavers were unable to file down their teeth, they would overgrow which could lead to serious health problems and even death.

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(This photograph of a beaver was captured on the Mill Creek in Spring 2023. Photo Credit: Johnny Dwyer of Mill Creek Alliance)

Sources for further information:

• Ohio Department of Natural Resources

• ODNR Beaver Population Report

• National Geographic KIDS

• Smithsonian National Zoo

MCA Volunteers in Action

Celebrating MCA volunteers because our work would not be complete without them!

National Honey Bee Day

Why does MCA staff member Linda Keller celebrate National Honey Bee Day? 

“Well beesides gratitude for pollinating some of my favorite things (apples, blueberries, peaches, basil, melons, sunflowers, and almonds) beecause bees are all the buzz in my backyard! 

Before and After

Let me tell you a roundabout story about how I came to be a beekeeper. 

In 2016, after my long time friend John Magee introduced me to native plants through his Native Plant Podcast, I made a commitment to learn more about how these specialized plants can positively impact the environment.  I sheet mulched over all the grass in ¼ of my backyard and committed myself to creating a native woodland.  Seven years later, I’m fully committed to planting native and to support the benefits it brings to our ecosystem.  My water bottle sports the slogan “I Plant for Pollinators”.  Pawpaw, foxglove beardtongue, great blue lobelia, cardinal flower, common chokeberry, wild geranium, red dosier dogwood, false solomon seal, wild ginger, anise hyssop, large-leaved aster, blue mistflower, oak, walnut, and more. I want it all! 

Fast forward to 2022, when a friend asked if I wanted to have a honeybee hive in my backyard and next thing I knew, I was a beekeeper.  Over the past year I have asked many questions and learned more than I ever thought possible about bees.

In my thirst for knowledge about my honey bees, I’ve also discovered that honeybees are NOT native to North America!  (So much for my native woodland!)  Maybe they are NOT native, but they are very important!

Of the 20,000 species of bees, only six or seven species produce honey.  One of these, the honeybee (Apis mellifera), was exported from Europe to North America in the 17th century to make honey & wax and for their pollination services.  They can be considered livestock animals, raised and managed by humans/farmers. Honeybees are highly social insects that live in colonies.  One queen reigns over a large family of female worker bee offspring and a handful of male drones.  The queen only leaves the hive once in her life, to take her mating flight, then spends the remainder of her days laying + or - 800,000 eggs over her lifespan (up to 5 years).

Honeybees are holometabolous insects and have four stages in the life cycle: egg, larvae, pupa, adult. 98% of the queen’s eggs will become female worker bees who live short but busy lives (approximately 30 days).  What about the other 2%?  Those eggs will become lazy male drones whose one important purpose is to mate with another hive’s queen, a process that literally kills him.

Courtesy of Howland Blackiston, Beekeeping for Dummies.

The female bees do ALL the work needed to keep a hive healthy and productive.  Sterile worker bees rotate through a specific sequence of jobs during their lifetime (cleaning, hive maintenance, temperature control, processing nectar, feeding others, building and repairing comb, guarding the hive, and FINALLY, foraging for nectar and pollen).  How, pray tell, do they know when to switch jobs?  Bees communicate with each other using pheramones (chemical messages), body language (sometimes called waggle dances), vision, scent, and taste!  Sometimes they move to a new job because their body no longer allows them to accomplish their current job (i.e. after about three weeks of life, the workers bees food and wax glands atrophy, so they shift to foraging duty).

At any one time, 50,000-80,000 bees are living in a healthy hive….trust me that is a lot of bees to consider and even to listen to!

As I mentioned, only 6 of the 20,000 species of bees are “honeybees”.  That leaves 19,994 other species of bees, many of which ARE native to our region!  These other important native bees often live solitary lives or in small ground nests.  If you’ve ever heard of a “bee hotel”, those are meant for native bees. They are the reason many native plant gardeners do NOT keep clean and tidy garden beds in spring!  (They are waiting to cut down dry hollow stems until AFTER native bees have had a chance to hatch.)

Listen to the podcast about native bees

Native Melittology (INDIGENOUS BEES) with Krystle Hickman

Read More on the untidy garden bed!

Learn how to preserve habitat for native bees.

take a peek at the life of native bees

PBS documentary by wildlife filmmaker, Martin Dohrn.

Am I starting to sound like a MELLITOLOGIST?  To be honest, I’ve only touched on the tip of the iceberg of factoids I’ve learned so far….there is so much to know and so many questions still unanswered.  Each fact I learn seems more interesting than the one before.  On my current RESEARCH TO DO list is:  

“What did the bee say the flower?”

— "Hey Bud!"

• How do bees make wax for the cells?

• How does nectar become honey?

• What IS propolis? How do they make it and from what?

• Do bees have noses? How do they smell?

• Do they find flowers by smell? If not, how?

• When there is a swarm, how do they decide who stays and who goes?

• When is a swarm considered “wild”? Is it wild or feral?

• Why do bees buzz near my ears? Do they like/dislike gray hair or are they trying to make me think they are bigger than they are?

eating bees?

A yummy recipe!

Learn More About BEES

• U.S. Department of Agriculture

• Beginners Field Guide to Identifying Bees
  Colorado State University Extension

• USGS Honeybee Inventory FLICKR 

• iNaturalist Apis Mellifera

• Animal Diversity Web

Canoes and Conversation 2023

Watch the Canoes & Conversation Program
(under the tent)
from June 17th, 2023

On June 17, 2023, Mill Creek Alliance gathered local leaders and community members to consider the opportunities and economic benefits of the Mill Creek as a regional asset. Guests participated in activities including, biking, hiking, paddling, and dam tours before gathering under the tent for lunch and to hear from stakeholders.